Definitions
- The
Mysterium Tremendum et Fascinans
Human beings
regard anything sacred or holy with ambivalent feeling: fear struggles with attractions.
Like a child before a huge bonfire the believer trembles with mingled dread and
fascination. Rudolph Otto used this image in his famous study The Idea of the Holy, distinguishing
“the holy” from moral perfection or intellectual respect, calling it “the
numinous.” He characterized it as mysterium tremendum et fascinans.
- Shamanism
A mode of
dealing with the spirit world through the agency of an individual set apart as
spirit possessed and specially equipped to deal with superhuman forces. (The
term shaman is generically applied to
healers, exorcists, sorcerers, magicians, fetish priests, and the like.
- The Rig
Veda
(Literally, “the
Veda of stanzas of praise”) is an anthology of religious poetry in ten books,
containing over one thousand hymns and reflecting the religious devotion of
long- established family and other groups before and during the Vedic Age. At
first these hymns (some by individuals) existed only in oral form. They are
prayers addressed to a single or often to two or more deities called devas or “shining ones,” a word
identical with the Latin deus (whence
also comes, of course, the English word deity),
whose residences were found in three religions—the earth, the heavens, and the
intermediate air.
- The:
Trimurti: Define the characteristics of each god.
At the pinnacle
of the framework, the Brahmins advanced the concept of the Trimurti or The Triad of Gods; Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
Brahma
is the creator of the universe, and the source from which all the individual
deities have sprung, and into which all will ultimately be absorbed. "As
milk changes to curd, and water to ice, so is Brahma variously transformed and
diversified, without aid of exterior means of any sort. The human soul,
according to the Vedas, is a portion of the supreme ruler, as a spark is of the
fire. "BRAHMA, at first a word meaning prayer and devotion, becomes in the
laws of Manu the primal God, first-born of the creation, from the self-existent
being, in the form of a golden egg. He became the creator of all things by the
power of prayer. In the struggle for ascendancy, which took place between the
priests and the warriors, Brahma naturally became the deity of the former. But,
meantime, as we have seen, the worship or Vishnu had been extending itself in
one region and that of Siva in another. Then took place those mysterious wars
between the kings of the Solar and Lunar races, of which the great epics
contain all that we know. And at the close of these wars a compromise was
apparently accepted, by which Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva were united in one
supreme God, as creator, preserver, and destroyer, all in one.
Vishnu
occupies the second place in the triad of the Hindus, and is the
personification of the preserving principle. To protect the world in various
epochs of danger, Vishnu descended to the earth in different incarnations, or
bodily forms, which descents are called Avatars. They are very numerous, but
ten are more particularly specified. The first Avatar was as Matsya, the Fish,
under which form Vishnu preserved Manu, the ancestor of the human race, during
a universal deluge. The second Avatar was in the form of a Tortoise, which form
he assumed to support the earth when the gods were churning the sea for the
beverage of immortality, Amrita. We may omit the other Avatars, which were of
the same general character, that is, interpositions to protect the right or to
punish wrong-doers, and come to the ninth, which is the most celebrated of the
Avatars of Vishnu, in which he appeared in the human form of Krishna, an
invincible warrior, who by his exploits relieved the earth from the tyrants who
oppressed it. Buddha is by the followers of the Brahmanical religion regarded
as a delusive incarnation of Vishnu, assumed by him in order to induce the
Asuras, opponents of the gods, to abandon the sacred ordinances of the Vedas,
by which means they lost their strength and supremacy. Kalki is the name of the
TENTH Avatar, in which Vishnu will appear at the end of the present age of the
world to destroy all vice and wickedness, and to restore mankind to virtue and
purity.
Siva
is the third person of the Hindu triad. He is the personification of the
destroying principle. Though the third named, he is, in respect to the number
of his worshippers and the extension of his worship, before either of the
others. In the Puranas (the scriptures of the modern Hindu religion) no
allusion is made to the original power of this god as a destroyer; as that
power is not to be called into exercise till after the expiration of twelve
millions of years, or when the universe will come to an end; and Mahadeva
(another name for Siva) is rather the representative of regeneration than of
destruction. The worshippers of Vishnu and Siva form two sects, each of which
proclaims the superiority of its favorite deity, denying the claims of the
other, and Brahma, the creator, having finished his work, seems to be regarded
as no longer active, and has now only one temple in India, while Mahadeva and
Vishnu have many. The worshippers of Vishnu are generally distinguished by a
greater tenderness for life and consequent abstinence from animal food, and worship
less cruel than that of the followers of Siva.
Comparisons
- Tribal
Religions and World Foundation Religions, including the four major
paradigms.
WORLDWIDE POPULATION IN PRIMAL CULTURES:
ca. 94 million
SACRED TRADITION: Oral, pictorial, or
transmitted through artifacts
CASE STUDIES: Primal cultures of the
recent past:
The Dieri of Australia Date of study,
ca. 1865 Population, ca. 10,000
The BaVenda of South Africa Date of study,
ca. 1920 Population, ca. 150,000
The Cherokees of Southeastern United
States Date of study, ca. 1825 Population, ca. 18,000
None of us can hope to see the world
through the eyes of our prehistoric ancestors. We pore over their cave
paintings, their implements, the disposition of bodies and artifacts in their
burial sites, and we make conjectures. We do, however, have a clearer view of
primal religions in our own time. (The term primal is here used to refer to
religions in an original state, that is, confined to a relatively small
cultural setting, isolated, not branching from other religions, and “not
exported.”) Although there is no clear warrant for interpreting the probable
intentions of prehistoric people by analogy to those of more recent primal
cultures, we find ourselves taking note of parallels simply because there are
no alternative models to inform our suppositions. We should view the analogies
with caution. Conjectures about prehistoric cultures and observations of
isolated primal cultures in the recent past converge on one vital function of
religion: the linking of the visible, everyday world with powerful unseen
forces and spirits. In this regard, the lives of ancient peoples were far more
intimately interwoven with the forces of nature than moderns can readily
conceptualize. It is our habit to objectify: the sudden storm is a product of
colliding air masses; an eclipse is a product of planetary orbits; the deceased
grandfather in a dream is a product of brain function. In ancient or primal cultures
the storm, the eclipse, and the dream appear not as objects but as “others” in
a subject-to-subject mode. In a profound sense this meant an enlargement of the
scope of religious encounter. To understand such a worldview puts special
demands upon our powers of empathy. The history of Islam has often been linked
to the existence of an Islamic state or empire. From its beginnings, Islam
existed and spread as a community-state; it was both a faith and a political
order. Within centuries after his death, Muhammad's local Arabian polity became
a vast empire, extending from North Africa to Southeast Asia. The development
of Islam and state institutions (the caliphate, law, education, the military,
social services) were intertwined. Again, the Prophetic period provided the
paradigm for later generations. For it was in Medina that the Quranic mandate
took on form and substance under the guidance and direcions, Ancestral Venerattion
of the Prophet. The Medinan community formed a total framework for state, society,
and culture. It epitomized the Quranic mandate for Muslims as individuals and
as a community umma to transform the world itself through action in the world. This
aspiration and ideal has constituted the challenge for the Islamic community
throughout much of its history. It inspired Muhammad to transform a local
shiekdom into a transtribal state. Paradigmatic Metanarratives: nature,
harmony, liberation, history. Order of existence: cognitive/intellectual,
aesthetics/emotions, moral/ethical, and logos, the natural order of universe.
- Soul Concepts, Ancestral Veneration, and
Animism
There is no single history which covers
the various tribal religions. Many seem to have developed according to
happenings in nature and fear of certain events (lightning, thundering’s,
earthquake’s for example) which were not understood. Normal happenings in life:
birth, adulthood, marriage, death--gave reason for rejoicing or sorrowing. This
caused the followers to look to a higher power. These tribal religions are
usually found in more underdeveloped areas of the world. Some Common Features:
Animisrn: Nature and the world around is
alive with spirits and mystical forces (personal or impersonal), thus things’
are worshipped and venerated.
Magic: Attempting to force nature to
one's will. Sympathetic Magic attempts to coerce nature to behave in a certain
manner by performing that act oneself on a smaller scale (example: voodoo
dolls) Fetish--an object that controls nature in fashion (example: lucky rabbits
feet)
Divination: Seeing into the future,
usually through the use of a Shaman.
Taboo: Certain actions and objects must
be avoided so as not to anger the spirit world.
Totems: Some primitive religions express
the kinship they feel with nature, for example, identifying themselves with a particular
animal.
Sacrifice: One of the most common
practices of all religions. It is variously considered in terms of feeding the spirits,
giving a gift to the spirits, or establishing a bond between men and the
spirits.
Rites of Passage: Certain rituals are
carried out at key points in the life of a person.
Worship of Ancestors: Believing that the
soul lives on after the death of the body, led to efforts to avert the evil the
dead might do. Ancestors are worshipped to also please the dead so they will
benefit the living.
Evil is caused by human mistakes, chance
and malicious sorcery.
Goal is to fulfill one's particular destiny
now (a tribal position, attaining old age, dying of natural causes, bearing
children). Salvation or the futures are not considered much.
For spiritual help tribal members go to
the diviners or seek help from ancestor spirits. Belief that man and God became
estranged when a greedy man tried to take too much food; Also, a belief that
man was cursed by a lizard-like creature.
Worship consists of family rites,
personal prayers, use of religious objects, and offerings made to a deity. Transmigration
of Souls--you move from caste to caste in various lives. The ultimate goal is
to learn to deny the world and thus achieve release or moksha.
Circumcision is practiced in some tribes
of New Guinea.
Shamans or holy men help reveal the will
of God to the laity.
With some tribes, possession by a spirit
of the deity is desirable.
- Hymn of
Creation(page 79) re; status of the gods
The gods of the Aryans were not like the
animals figures of the Harappa’s, but transcendent sky gods who actively helped
them fight against their enemies. These included both indigenous peoples and
earlier immigrants to the area. The Vedic hymns were the verses recited, for
the most part, at sacrifices to Aryan gods, which they called devas. Devas
represented and controlled the forces of nature, they were divine power.
However, the powers which attracted the attention of the Aryans, when they came
to South Asia, were the cosmic in nature--the sky, the sun, the order of nature
itself. Their two most important sky gods were Varuna and Indra. Varuna was the
guardian of the cosmic order; he created the world and ruled it by the standard
of rita--the proper course of things.
Rita provided a structure for the other celestial powers. Indra was the thunder
god, famous for successful warfare and special champion of the Aryan warrior.
These two gods were two sides of a
divine rule--the active side (Indra) and the passive side (Varuna). They
represented active intervention to overcome obstacles and bestow bounty on men,
and the eternal universal order. Varuna was to recede in importance, as the
Aryans fought to secure a foothold in the northwest plains. The warrior Indra became
the greatest of the devas. At the sacrifices where Rig Veda hymns were recited,
the devas were invited to come and sit around the sacrificial fire, to receive
the hospitality of the Aryans who sacrificed animals in their honor. The
priests of the Aryans attempted to incur the goodwill of the devas by singing
them songs of praise. The composition of these hymns became confined to a small
number of poet priests who were considered inspired. Because the Vedas were
sacred and essential to the well-being of the Aryans, their priests developed
special techniques to aid them in remembering the words to the hymns accurately
and in teaching them to younger generations of priests. Most of what we know
about the Aryans comes from these hymns.
- Karma and
Samsara re. reincarnation and caste
No precise founding, but grew up largely
between 1500 B.C. and 400 B.c. Brahman:
"World Soul" is a three-in-one god or Trimurti.
l. Brahma: Creator who is largely
ignored in worship.
2. Vishnu: Preserver who is actively
worshipped particularly as rishna.
3. Shiva: Destroyer who is both
worshipped and feared.
Millions or lesser gods or spirits are
also reverenced. THE VEDAS--Hymns and rituals of priests which are the
fundamental scriptures. The RIG \/EDA is the oldest and most important of the
Vedas.
The UPANISHADS are commentaries on the
Vedas.
The BHAGAVAD GITA is an epic poem which influential
document in the religious history of India.
Lord's Song."
Aryans (meaning "Noble Ones")
led by rajahs or chieftains were nomads who invaded India from Persia between
1700-1500 B.C. They were Indo-European and brought the worship of multiple gods
with them. Their beliefs became mixed with the native Indian traditions to form
what we now know as Hinduism. The Hindu faith endured many difficult and trying
periods. From 500 B.C. to 500 A.D. internal difficulties both politically and
economically caused the religion to fit more the character of the Indian
people. Then, the Hindus had to endure 750 years of subjection to the Muslims
(999-1757 A.D.). Christianity tried to leave its mark on India, but did not
succeed when the Europeans (mainly the British) dominated India from 1757-1947.
One of the most famous modern Hindus was Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) who through
his pacifism and fasting led the Indians to independence. Hinduism remains the
dominant religion of India.
Karma--the force that binds the soul to
an endless cycle of death and rebirth unless it is broken; good from good, evil
from evil law of cause and effect.
- Moksha--release,
to become at one with the universal spirit.
- No Founder
and No Fixed Creed.
- Hindu
Religious Practice--is very personal.
- Two Common
Beliefs of All Hindus:
- Validity
of the Vedas--as the inspired Word
- Caste
system--all people are born into one of four levels or castes.
·
Caste
System:
o
Brahrnin--holy
men
o
Kshatriya--rulers
and warriors
o
Vaishyas-
-merchantsa nd craf tsmen
o
Sudras-
-comm oners
Each caste has its own specialized
duties (Dharma).
Transmigration of Souls--you move from
caste to caste in various lives. The ultimate goal is to learn to deny the
world and thus achieve release or moksha.
·
Vishnu--had
many avatars or appearances as a fish, tortoise, dwarf, Rama, Krishna, and
Buddha. The last one is yet to come. Kalkin--a warrior, will appear on a white
steed with flaming sword, will judge the evil ones, reward the righteous and
set up an ideal world.
·
Personal
Salvation--can be obtained through a number of ways:
o
Jnana-
-knowledge( ascet icism,m edi tat ion)
o
Karma--deeds
(obedience to caste rules)
o
Bhakti--devotion
(worship of the gods)
- Four Goals:
o
Dharma
(specified duties of one's caste)
o
Artha
(worldly concern--how to get along with the world legitimately)
o
Kama
(pursuit of love and pleasure)
o
Moksha
(release)
- Ideal life
cycle of man in Hinduism (from the Code of Manu) as a man grows older.
Student, Householder, Hermit, Wandering beggar
- The Cow is
sacred because it exemplifies non-aggression and non-materialism.
- There is
seemingly no purpose to this life except man seeks to be released from the
endless cycle of death and rebirth and to be united with the spirit of the
universe through work
- Salvation from the cycle of death and
rebirth is through works. Works can be rituals, good deeds, meditation, or
devotion to God.
Two
Essays
This documentary
shows an ancient, sacred Apache ritual that has never before been
adolescence to adulthood for young
Apache women, is disappearing under the pressures of
cultural assimilation. This documentary
focuses on the Sunrise Ceremony of 13-year-old
Maureen Nachu, who lives on the Fort
Apache Reservation in Whiteriver, Arizona, and is a
member of the White Mountain Apache
Tribe.
The Sunrise
Dance itself is a tremendous physical test, lasting four days. It proves that
Maureen has the courage and strength of
character to take her place in adult society. The dance is
the strongest commitment a young Apache
girl can make to her family and tradition. For
Maureen, her family and her community,
the ceremony is a reaffirmation of tribal identity and a
popularly as the Sunrise Dance. Today,
this is no longer true. Although puberty ceremonies
continue to be performed on a regular
basis, most Apache girls now must do without them. Two
reasons for this decline are apparent.
First, as a result of inroads made on the traditional religion
by missionaries, some Apaches no longer
believe in the effectiveness of na'ii'ees. A second
reason that na'ii'ees is held less and
less is its prohibitive cost. The amount of money and work
required is staggering and this
condition makes the ceremony impossible for many people.
Na'ii'ees is a ritual enactment of the
Apache origin myth. Long ago, according to the
had sexual intercourse with the Sun, and
as a result of this union brought forth Naye' nazgháné-
(Slayer of Monsters), the foremost
Western Apache culture
hero.http://www.grrlstories.org/rites/ROPApache.htm four days later, Changing
Woman became pregnant by Water Old-Man
and gave birth to Túbaadeschine (Born of Water
Old-Man). As the twins matured, Changing
Woman and other powerful figures taught them all
of the things Apaches needed to know. As
soon as they were old enough, Naye' nazgháné-and;
Túbaadeschine left home and rid the
earth of much evil.
Changing Woman's
power grants longevity. Although she grows old, she is always able
to recapture her youth by walking
towards the east and turning around counterclockwise four
times. This power is transferred to the
pubescent girl through songs sung by the diiyin ('one who
has power'), the medicine man. The thirty-two
or more songs are believed to have first been sung
by Changing Woman and are collectively
known as gohzhoosih ('songs of beauty and
goodness'). This power resides in her
for four days after the ceremony. During this period, the
pubescent girl personifies Changing
Woman and is said to be able to cure the sick and bring rain.
Sunrise Dance
The Art of the Dogonhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=epqg5EiX6tw
The Dogon people of
Mali possess one of the richest art traditions in West Africa. Residing in an
imposing landscape of steep cliffs and arid plains, the Dogon have for
centuries created powerful sculpture to use in various rituals and in their
daily life.
One of the great admirers and collectors of
Dogon art is Lester Wunderman. This half-hour film is based on his extensive
collection at the Metropolitan Museum and his archival footage which was shot
on location in Mali. The Art of the Dogon attempts to capture the beauty and
power of Dogon at while placing it in context within Dogon beliefs and culture.
The video
shows Dogon art in two radically different contexts. There are clips of an
exhibition in Texas dedicated to their art, and then the video attempts to
place the objects in the context of their actual use in Dogon society. An issue we need to
keep in mind does not just understand the social context of the production of the work of art, but how
it is consumed or
experienced in the different cultural contexts. On the basis of this contrast
articulate the different roles of art in Dogon society and the modern museum.
At various
points in the video connections are made to art in the western world:
comparisons are made between African tribal traditions and Primitivism
in Modern art. To understand this phenomenon, we must begin by focusing our
attention, not on the art objects themselves, nor on the people who made them,
but rather on those who have defined, developed, and defended, and defended the
internationalization of Primitive Art, and other racial, cultural, political,
and economic visions.
Understanding that Dogon society is a
non-literate society while without
writing, art objects can acquire extraordinary importance as visual records. On
a simple level, the possession of a particular object --a crown, for example--
can prove the legitimacy of succession. The right to sacrifice to a particular
ancestor can carry with it the inherited right to farm certain land. On a
deeper level, works of art are endowed with complex meaning and serve as
repositories of traditional knowledge.
